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Mosquito, an insect which was never expected in Namche Bazaar due to its cold climatic condition, has been spotted there to a noticeable extent in recent years. This is a distressing example of species shift resulting due to climate change. Although Nepal is one of the lowest per capita carbon emitters (0.43 metric tons), it is one of the most climate-vulnerable countries in the world and has already experienced changes in temperature and precipitation at a faster rate than the global average. The Paris Accord of 2015 aimed to limit the average temperature rise from 1.5 to 2 degrees Celsius warmer compared to the pre-industrial level but the recent Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) report has clearly stated that the global temperature will surpass the target of 1.5 degree Celsius or even 2 in about two decades resulting in a catastrophic situation. However, efforts have been made by member countries of UNFCCC with their pledge to work on the Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) that would set their own targets for reducing greenhouse gas emission by promoting clean energy and cutting coal and petroleum use.
There are various policy interventions for climate change in Nepal where climate change issues fall under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Forest and Environment. Nepal formulated a Climate Change Policy in 2019 which is the centerpiece of Nepal’s response to climate change with several related past efforts complementing it, including the Nepal Adaptation Program of Action (NAPA) focused on addressing the immediate and urgent adaptation needs. To implement NAPA in municipalities and villages, Nepal has also developed Local Adaptation Plans of Action (LAPAs) and Community Adaptation Plans of Action (CAPAs). Nepal has also presented its second NDC report to UNFCCC outlining its ambitious targets for the next decade (upto 2030) to build climate-resilient societies with pragmatic adaptation and mitigation measures to fight against climate change.
Nepal’s vulnerability could be elevated by the fact of the country’s fragile ecosystem, uneven topography, low GDP, and high dependency on hydroelectricity and agriculture. Nepal’s changing climate has been impacting the country’s main ecosystems like forests, grasslands, rangelands, wetlands, mountains, and agro-ecosystems. Effects have been observed as rainy days are decreasing but high-intensity rainfall events are spiking, resulting in an increase in water-induced disasters like floods, flash floods, debris flows, landslides, and slope failures. On the other hand, the possible threat of Glacier Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs) is also increasing in Nepal as 26 out of 2,315 glacial lakes are potentially dangerous for GLOFs, wreaking havoc to downstream communities and the hydropower projects. The increasing temperature and rainfall variability have resulted in tree-line shifts along with the species shift which could cause the extinction of endangered flora and fauna. An increase in the intensity and frequency of droughts can lead to forest fires and in 2021 alone 60 places across 22 districts of Nepal were impacted by forest fires which is 15 times the number of fires in 2020. Due to increasing drought, wetlands in Terai have been depleted, resulting in devastation of fish and aquatic plants. The agricultural sector has been also affected by climate change as the most productive agricultural areas are in the floodplains of Terai, which are vulnerable to riverbank cutting and floods. In the western Terai plains, due to the late arrival of monsoon and frequent drought, rice yields have declined, threatening food security. An increase in pests and diseases due to increased temperature has also affected crop and livestock production. Health risks from climate change range from heat stress to a rise in waterborne and vector-borne diseases. Waterborne infectious diseases such as cholera had an outbreak from increased temperature and diversified rain patterns. Increased incidence of vector-borne diseases such as malaria, kala-azar, Japanese encephalitis in Nepal has been especially linked to rainfall.
In Nepal, the majority of people affected by climate change are women who are disproportionality at risk, whether from floods, in which more women drown than men or through working in agriculture, where women carry out most of the additional labor required to cope with the lack of water and the new diseases that climate change will bring.
To combat climate change in Nepal, pragmatic policies and actions are going to be of utmost importance. Use of renewable energy technologies in different sectors should be promoted. It’s high time the government promoted zero emission electric vehicles and electric railways with competent charging stations all over Nepal. Moreover, solutions should be explored for clean cooking solutions by the use of electric stoves, improved stoves and biogas technology. The government should develop a provision for the use of environmentally-friendly solar water pumps to irrigate the arable land. Likewise, ponds should be built in villages in order to harvest rainwater which would later be used for different purposes. There should be a provision for identifying and conserving the sensitive watersheds. To increase the carbon content of the soil, the use of organic fertilizers should be fostered along with discouraging the use of chemical fertilizers. Similarly, the local government can initiate programs to build environmentally-friendly model agricultural villages, climate smart villages and carbon neutral tourist destinations. Although about 45% of land is covered with forest in Nepal, it can still be increased by the plantation program in barren land of urban areas and by promoting community forests. There should be a provision for appropriate technologies and training to control as well as manage invasive species like Banmara and forest fire. Unplanned development works have always become a bottleneck for the environment, so detailed environmental studies should be conducted before carrying out any construction and development projects. Carbon emission from industries should be controlled and the “Polluters Pay” mechanism should be effectively implemented. A national level master plan should be made for waste management and sewage management. The government should focus on disaster risk reduction plans along with the deployment of hydro-meteorological stations in climate hazardous areas so that the early warning or messages could be delivered to the climate vulnerable societies and groups.
In the UN climate change summit i.e. COP26 which will be held in Glasgow in November 2021, world leaders have to commit to drastic reductions in greenhouse gas emissions. This could be done by emphasizing the wealthy countries which are far off track for delivering the climate finance (about $ 100 billion per year) they committed to deliver to the developing and vulnerable countries over a decade ago. The delegates should ensure that Nepal’s voice is heard in the inclusive climate negotiations at the upcoming COP26 which matters not only for the people of Nepal but also for the continent of Asia.
Roshan Kumar Chhetri
Nepal’s energy mix, currently dominated by hydropower, is expected to be more diverse in the coming years with developers showing interest in renewable energy projects. Nationally Determined Contribution has set a goal to expand clean energy generation from approximately 1,400 to 15,000 megawatts, of which 5-10 percent will be generated from mini and micro-hydropower, solar, wind and bio-energy by 2030. Out of this, 5,000 megawatts is an unconditional target, and wind energy may be a viable option to meet this goal. The wind mapping data from the World Bank Group shows that Nepal has a very good potential for wind energy generation, but not much has been done on this front so far. A few small-scale wind turbines set up in various parts of the country have become a viable option for those areas not connected to the national grid.
New energy science and technology breakthroughs could cut the cost of wind energy by half by 2030, making it fully competitive, and thus wind turbines are getting cheaper, bigger and better. Till now, a total of 24,105 megawatt-hours (MWh) of electrical energy is available through the Integrated National Power System, out of which 22 percent is generated by Nepal Electricity Authority (NEA) plants, 40 percent is generated by independent power producers, and 38 percent is imported from India.
Huge opportunity
In order to make Nepal self-reliant in energy production, there is a huge opportunity for the government and independent power producers to develop and invest in this sector. According to a Solar and Wind Energy Resource Assessment report, about 3,000 megawatts can be generated from wind energy only which is far greater than Nepal’s electricity demand. For a country like Nepal where national grid extension to all rural communities is a challenge, clean and modern electricity service through wind and solar/wind hybrid systems is expected to be the most viable option. Since there is no need for high wind speed for small wind turbines, small systems with a capacity of less than 400 watts can be installed to electrify rural areas without long-term data.
The Alternative Energy Promotion Centre has been successfully implementing wind and solar/wind hybrid systems under the public-private partnership model for the electrification of off-grid communities. As per policy, the wind and solar/wind hybrid mini-grid projects will be eligible for subsidies if the sites are not accessible to the national grid and no other means of electrification exist.
Also, policy for the integration of wind and solar photovoltaic energy into the national grid power system through net metering has already been formulated by the government. This will have a positive impact on reducing the NEA’s distribution losses in the selected distribution centres. For wind power, the levelised cost of energy was calculated for three sites and it was found to be Rs7.95 per kilowatt-hour which will decrease in the future. The government has also provisioned for viability gap funding which will be utilised to fill the gap between the posted power purchase rate and the competitive rate quoted by power developers. Nepal’s wind energy has ways to go to achieve its vision of higher grid penetration and transition to a low-carbon economy.
Despite the huge potential, there are a few challenges for the development of wind energy in Nepal. The main challenge is the transportation of large turbines over challenging topography to reach areas with high potential. The country has a limited number of data measurement stations, and adequate research has not been carried out to determine the feasibility of wind power generation and its potential contribution in Nepal’s energy supply. Land acquisition for electricity projects, transmission lines and substations is very difficult and costly. Approval for environmental impact assessment or initial environmental examination takes up to two years.
The power purchase agreement requires developers to build their own power evacuation/transmission lines, which have to be handed over to the government after the licence period. Such policies discourage independent power producers from investing in wind energy. Policy uncertainty about grid expansion, poor access to credit and absence of formal financial institutions at the local level also discourage private entrepreneurs from venturing into the sector. There is no integrated energy policy covering all kinds of energy resources.
Applicable solutions should be explored to boost wind energy in Nepal’s energy mix. Since the country has a limited number of data measurement stations, preference should be given to expanding the stations in order to fine-tune the modelling. Micro-level modelling is required for wind energy assessment because of topographical variations. Further research and analysis is required for evaluating the whole and micro-level potential of the wind. Special provisions should be made for the acquisition of land for electricity projects, transmission lines and substations.
Simplify provisions
Smart meter and grid concepts should be implemented gradually. The Alternative Energy Promotion Centre should prepare a proper subsidy delivery mechanism for wind energy. The government should simplify provisions relating to environmental impact assessment and initial environmental examination for power sale or purchase agreements. The social attitude towards wind technology has to be changed by implementing successful and affordable wind projects involving public engagement. Similarly, the government should invite competitive bids for wind electricity projects. Training and upgrading of the related software is also required. Better performance will be achieved with clear policy frameworks, enforcement of appropriate technical standards, standardised operational metrics and support for finance, stakeholder training and research and development.
Nepal’s hydroelectricity system is dominated by run-of-the-river power plants where only one-third of their installed capacity can be produced during the winter or dry season. An energy mix for Nepal’s power system is essential to generate sufficient energy, and through ongoing technological advancements, wind energy will continue its drive for lower costs, improved capacity factors, and higher grid penetration.
Roshan Kumar Chhetri
Nepal is highly vulnerable to various types of natural disasters. They cannot be stopped but the extent can be reduced by taking preventive measures for which pragmatic government policies and technological advancement are of utmost importance. Disaster risk management is on the verge of going digital in Nepal. The National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Authority is a legal framework for understanding disaster risk. It has a Building Information Platform Against Disaster (BIPAD) portal which was developed by pooling all credible digital and spatial data available within different government agencies, non-government organisations, academic institutions and research organisations on a single platform.
It is an integrated and comprehensive national disaster information management system designed to foster disaster data partnership and data sharing. It builds upon the concept of creating a national portal embedded with independent platforms for national, provincial and municipal governments with a bottom-up approach of disaster data partnership. Users can see alerts of various disaster events throughout the country by province, district and local unit on the BIPAD portal. It also shows the basic details of the incident including losses so users can analyse the severity of the incident and respond accordingly.
Early warning system
Disaster information management systems and online databases are under development with features for increasing accessibility for public use. They include SAHANA, DesInventar, Nepal Disaster Risk Reduction Portal, Nepal Government GeoPortal and primary data of real-time water and flood monitoring system of the Department of Hydrology and Meteorology. The department has a mandate from the government to monitor all hydrological and meteorological activities in Nepal. It has established hydro-meteorological stations in Rasuwa, Solukhumbu, Kaski, Dolpa, Humla, Dolakha, Jumla, Sankhuwasabha and Manang. These stations collect temperature, precipitation, relative humidity, solar radiation, wind speed and direction and water level data. The information helps to issue forecasts and early warnings to minimise losses from disasters. The early warning system installed by USAID issued a flood alert in the Kankai River basin through SMS in 2017, thanks to which there were few deaths although many houses were submerged, and crops and livestock destroyed.
Despite the huge opportunities, there are a few challenges for disaster risk reduction in Nepal. The main challenge is that our disaster management models are based on historical data and observation, assuming that the past is a reasonable guide to the present and future whereas such assumptions have now been rendered obsolete on almost every front. Risks are emergent and increasingly non-linear, but our conventional response is linear. There is an information, technology and knowledge gap in the practical aspects of disaster management. Limited work has been done on scientific risk assessments so far. There are not sufficient hydro-meteorological stations while some of the existing ones have been damaged and not updated. The country lacks advanced technology including early warning systems. There is weak coordination between different disaster-related agencies, and few non-governmental organisations are willing to work in disaster preparedness, mitigation and rehabilitation work. Rapid urbanisation and unplanned settlement combined with a lack of public awareness about preventive measures to reduce the impact of natural disasters are some other challenges.
In 1970, Cyclone Amphan killed 300,000 people in Bangladesh. In 1991, the tropical cyclone killed about 145,000 people; but in May 2020, only 26 people died as nearly 2 million people were evacuated in time. This was made possible by high-resolution numerical weather prediction information and round-the-clock surveillance of tropical cyclones by three satellites over the Bay of Bengal. This example demonstrates that Nepal can also explore applicable solutions for disaster risk reduction. Responsiveness, technology and coordination are the three important factors to be prioritised for effective disaster risk management. More scientific research is needed to understand disaster risks. The disaster information management system needs to be institutionalised at all tiers of government from local to federal. Similarly, coordination with international cooperation should be done for knowledge and technology transfer.
Coordination can be done with the Central Bureau of Statistics during the census for generating, managing and digitising data. For big data processing and modelling, there should be a provision for high power computing machines like supercomputers. Sufficient meteorological and hydrological data along with sediment discharge stations needs to be installed. The existing hydro-met stations should be upgraded with the latest early warning system and automatic hydrological stations including a telemetry system. Similarly, information technology and user-friendly technology needs to be developed for the early warning system. Satellite-based emergency mapping needs to be improved both in quality and response by enhancing radio systems and geographic information system-based technology.
Drones for disaster monitoring
Collaboration should be done with multiple stakeholders to make use of drones for disaster monitoring and damage assessment and robots for rescue operations. Real-time information should be given through Facebook, Twitter, Instagram and YouTube which should be further analysed and validated by artificial intelligence to filter and classify information and make predictive analysis. Internet of things including sensors can send alerts about potentially dangerous situations. For example, river levels can be monitored by sensors for possible flooding, and ground sensors can detect earth movements that might signal earthquakes. Tree sensors can detect if a fire has broken out by testing the temperature, moisture and carbon dioxide levels.
Non-governmental organisations need to be motivated to work in disaster-affected remote areas. Planned settlements are needed and building codes should be strictly implemented. Mass education, literacy and awareness campaigns should be launched in order to educate and make the people aware. Finally, emergency response planning and capacity enhancement, strengthening the policy and legal environment, and efficient and effective reconstruction and rehabilitation work are particularly necessary. Nepal’s disaster management models should be proactive, but it is still reactive. Such models are essential to minimise the risk of disasters; and through ongoing technological advancement and rational policies, Nepal has much to achieve on this front.
Roshan Kumar Chhetri
It is a good time to look back at how Nepal has set an example in conservation through creating a favourable environment for wildlife. Nepal, having a natural ecosystem, extends from lowland Terai region to the high Himalayas, is a home to various floral and faunal species. The diverse topographic and climatic conditions have favoured a maximum diversity of flora and fauna in Nepal. Only 0.1 percent of the global area is occupied by the country, but it harbours about 3.2 percent and 1.1 percent of world’s known flora and fauna respectively. Nepal has established an efficient network of protected area systems with 12 National Parks, 1 Wildlife Reserve, 6 Conservation Areas, 1 Hunting Reserve and 13 Buffer zone ranging all over the country, covering 23.39 percent of the country’s total land.
Water and energy availability are the growing concerns for wildlife conservation. The sun has been the prime source of energy for all living beings since forever. The sun is the ultimate source of energy and its energy is being used directly and indirectly for assorted purposes. The alternative energy sources like diesel, petrol, fuel-wood, hydroelectricity and even our food originates indirectly from the sun. Unlike diesel, petrol, coal and other non-renewable energy sources, solar energy is renewable and inexhaustible. So, tapping solar energy is a logical and imperative course of action. The solar energy can be utilized to settle the drinking water crisis that has been enduring by wildlife in their habitat. The amount of water animals drink per day may vary according to their size. For example, Elephants require about 68.4 to 98.9 L of water daily, but may consume up to 152 L. An adult male elephant can even drink up to 212 L of water. Similarly tiger can drink up to 65 L to 70 L per day. The water requirement may increase for tigers living in a hot temperature region. The rhinoceros is dependent on water and will drink up to 72 L per day if the water is available. Solar Water Pumps proves to be the viable option to resolve the water crisis in the wildlife’s habitat.
Solar Water Pumps use electricity generated by Photovoltaic (PV) panels to pump out the water from reservoirs, wells or boreholes and fed directly onto fields or into a storage tank. Supplied water can then be used for irrigation, water livestock, household and drinking purpose. The Solar Water Pump can provide a more sustainable, clean and reliable source of water for the wildlife and also for the people living in the bordering communities. This reduces the carbon footprint and provides a more eco-friendly environment for wildlife. This could be the prominent technology for national parks and conservation areas that has no any major rivers within its boundaries and whose borders fail to include reliable year-round water sources. Poor rainfall can result in acute shortage of water in National Parks. Many water reserves have been drying due to wildfires that occurs annually in Nepal. The government and forest department can make use of Solar Pumps in an attempt to better the situation. Working 7-8 hours a day, a Solar Water Pump can refill a partially dried-up ponds and lakes while allowing the excess water to flow downstream. It pumps more water in sunny weather and slows down appropriately when it’s overcast or raining.
Solar Pumps have many pros over electrical pumps. Unlike electrical pumps, it doesn’t disturb the ecological and biological balance of the reserve. The energy comes straight from the sun, lowering its operational cost. Solar Water Pumps help in climate change mitigation by reducing the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. It also avoids the emission of particulate matter, noise pollution, diesel leakage into water and cultivations, and travel to collect fuels. The additional supply of water drawn from beneath the ground’s surface simultaneously reduces the wandering of elephants, tigers, rhinos and other wildlife out of parks perimeters in search of water, a threat to human settlement and livestock likewise. Solar Water Pump provides reliable water during the dry season and in turn, keep the wildlife away from straying into local villages. However the only disadvantage of it is that they need sunlight to work. They won’t pump the water in the early morning or late evening as there is not enough sunlight. Although batteries can be used with pump when the sun is out, but it is usually not recommended as batteries are much expensive and have very short lifetime.
Solar Water Pump is a proven technology which consists of components like PV modules, pump and pump controller. Solar panels are usually installed 15 to 20 feet above the ground level and a trench is built around them. This is done to ensure that the solar panels will be safe and no animals will be harmed by these devices. Installation, operation and maintenance of Solar Water pumps are also simple and it could be stationed at Hilly and Terai regions of Nepal, where the level of water beneath the ground is high.
Modern technology has made Solar Water Pump much more affordable and the best solution for providing the water resources for both wildlife and the surrounding communities. In order to make the impressive progress in biodiversity conservation the government and the concerned authorities of Nepal should focus on implementing and subsidizing such concept.
Roshan Kumar Chhetri
Think of the most essential elements needed to grow a plant: sunlight, water, air, and soil. Now imagine, growing a plant without soil. At first, a plant growing in a soilless culture might seem ridiculous, but that is where Hydroponics comes in. Hydroponics is made up of two Greek words, “Hydro” meaning water and “Ponos” meaning work or labor; simply, Hydroponics means “water working” and is a method of growing plants in water. Although it might sound complicated, through various research and attempts, modern hydroponics has evolved from large scale systems for commercial purposes to simple systems that people can install in their houses. Hydroponics farms have been gaining popularity globally as it has presented itself as a solution for problems such as wastewater treatment, food scarcity, lack of irrigation water, and farmland.
Depending on the type of plants, water supply, area, and other various factors there are different kinds of hydroponic systems. Some common hydroponics systems are; wick system, ebb and flow, drip system, and the one we will be discussing in this article, the nutrient flow technique (NFT). NFT is a simple system design in which all the necessary nutrients for the plants are added to the water in solution form. The roots of the plants absorb the nutrients when they come in contact with the water that is constantly flowing. The NFT system has gone through many modifications to tackle issues related to oxygen deficiency, ethylene buildup, and entanglement of roots from plants being placed too close in the system. NFT is often used to grow plants that are small and have a short growth period. Some crops that thrive in an NFT hydroponics system are lettuce, bok choy, strawberry, and some herbs such as basil, rosemary, etc. NFT systems have been used from small scale DIY household systems to commercial systems growing several thousand plants at a time.
Simpler to work with than the rest of the hydroponic systems, research has proven various advantages of the NFT hydroponic system including low water and nutrient consumption. The regular flow of water and nutrient solution assures that the plant gets the optimum amount of nutrients required for its healthy growth. In comparison to other systems, it is easier to disinfect the roots and hardware of the NFT system. Moreover, since it does not require a growth medium it is convenient to inspect the roots for any sign of diseases. The recirculation of water assures that there is minimal groundwater contamination, and a single pump or relatively less amount of water can be used for a large yield. The regular circulation also reduces the need for continuous aeration of the nutrient reservoir. Due to the regular feeding to the plants, a uniform pH is balanced throughout the system which helps in avoiding localized salt build-up in the roots. Since an NFT hydroponic system can be built even at home, it is inexpensive and is easily adaptable to plant types, climate, and plant requirements.
In the contemporary context, one of the most important advantages and application of an NFT system is in wastewater treatment. There have been multiple successful attempts in treating domestic, livestock, municipal, and industrial wastewater through the NFT system. While hydroponic systems have been used to treat wastewater and cultivate ornamental plants such as roses, the wastewater treatment has also been successfully tested on fruit-bearing plants. An evaluation of various hydroponic techniques as decentralized wastewater treatment and reuse systems showed that the crop yield for plants such as winter squash, sweet corn, eggplants, and cherry tomatoes was more than double that is obtained through traditional agriculture. This testing was done over a period of three years with more than 10 varieties of plants including flowers, vegetables, and herbs. Although there are numerous advantages and benefits of a hydroponic NFT system one of the downsides of it is that an NFT system does not work for plants with long taproots. It also does not work for plants that need a lot of support from the use of growing mediums.
The simple yet efficient design of an NFT system allows families to grow their own vegetables like lettuce, spinach, and tomato in their houses. The Netherlands, despite its size, is one of the leading food producers of the world due to its use of hydroponics systems, and Nepalese could use this system to grow plants in their own houses. The NFT system is apt for the moderate climate in Nepal and the plants suited for the system can be grown in household levels without the construction of a greenhouse. The hydroponic NFT system built and used at WindPower Nepal comprises of PVC pipes. PVC pipes are relatively inexpensive material which allows the system to be affordable for Nepali households. Through different trials, narrower pipes have been used to grow vegetables, such as lettuce and bok choy, and the problem of inadequate oxygen in narrow pipes is avoided by the regular circulation of water with nutrient solution. The system is capable of growing 120 plants in PVC channels of diameter 2.5 inches. This system uses 15 liters of water mixed with premade nutrient stock. This particular system is not just cost-effective but also saves space and water. While hydroponic systems might seem like a new and bizarre idea to Nepali households, this simple NFT hydroponic system is a convenient and efficient system that individuals and families can install in their houses to grow their own vegetables and fruits. Allowing households to grow their own food without compromising the quality and nutritional values, WindPower Nepal’s NFT system addresses growing concerns that individuals nowadays have regarding the quality of food production while also being affordable and efficient.
In 2017, cumulative solar PV capacity reached almost 398 GW and generated over 460 Terra Watt hour, representing around 2% of global power output. Utility-scale projects account for over 60% of total PV installed capacity, with the rest in distributed applications (residential, commercial and off-grid). Over the next five years, solar PV is expected to lead renewable electricity capacity growth, expanding by almost 580 GW. In Nepal as well, solar PV technology is set to rise to the top renewable energy source, after hydropower, and contribute to the nation’s energy mix scenario. In 2019, Nepal’s Department of Electricity Development approved survey licenses for 21 locations to prepare for the possible installation of 56 solar plants, which could have a combined solar capacity of 317.14 MW, with the largest planned solar energy project of 120MW in Dhalkebar, Mahottari. With increase in solar PV installations worldwide, the energy payback of these systems as a whole is an important element that we might have been missing out. With the global trend, increase in development of solar PV systems in our country and alarming issues of environmental impacts worldwide, it is a necessity that we become cautious of the systems we build and try to minimize its impact on the environment.
LCA (Life Cycle Assessment) is an important tool that can be used in PV systems’ design to optimize its cleanliness. It is an approach to environmental management system involving the quantitative evaluation of a product’s overall environmental impact. Only after observation of LCA results of different components, we can quantitatively determine the overall system’s CO2 emission and energy payback, and hence the cleanliness factor. The ability of LCA to quantitatively characterize the system’s cleanliness can be utilized to measure the relation of system we build with the environment. It offers an important advantage in system analysis by quantitative measurement of otherwise qualitative factor: relation with the environment. It can be incorporated into system design procedure so as to ensure carbon emission during the elements’ manufacturing is overcome as soon as possible. This will allow the system to be more carbon negative in its overall life cycle, in comparison to the system built without considering the emissions during its manufacture.
For building a carbon-aware system, the total system should be divided into the possible elements that can build its overall size. All the variations that can suffice the technical and financial requirements should be listed. Then, the CO2 emissions and energy requirements during all of its elements manufacture shall be taken out. This can be done by using software like SimaPro, Gabi, OpenLCA, etc. The energy payback shall also be calculated considering the overall system output simulations. Finally, after careful analysis, the system components are to be selected so that the emission and energy requirement of the overall system is minimum.
For an example, LCA result shows that for PV modules of 235-460 Wp capacity, the least energy required is for 235-260 Wp followed by 320-350 Wp and 435-460 Wp. Similar is the CO2 emission characteristics.
However, though the individual module result suggests the use of 245-260Wp modules, the result for different system sizes can be obtained differently. Therefore, it is important to calculate the LCA considering all the components of the overall system.
For instance, considering 1MW system and calculating the number of PV modules of different capacity required in the system, following results can be obtained.
Though minimum CO2 emission and Energy requirements were obtained for PV module of range 245-260 Wp , considering 1MW system, the least CO2 emission and Energy requirement is now obtained for modules of range 320-350 Wp. Therefore, the emission and energy requirement characteristics can be different depending on the number and size of components used in the system. Thus, it is important to quantitatively view all the elements in the overall system and design in its basis.
Conclusively, for large size utility scale projects, when design decisions are taken considering only technical and financial factors, the overall objective of using solar resource: clean energy, is pushed further. However, when the LCA results are considered, the overall system can be designed at the meeting point of financial, technical and environmental constraints. It helps reach the energy payback period faster, thus adding to the cleanliness factor of overall PV system use. Therefore, in the recent years where questions about the environmental impacts of technology have grown stronger, LCA can be a useful tool to minimize the environmental effects of PV power systems without compromising on the output.
KIREC is the first IREC to have a dedicated track on cities given the central roles cities play in renewable energy uptake and their importance in implementing national policies. The IREC consists of high-level plenary sessions, interactive parallel sessions and plenty of time to network and learn. WindPower Nepal CEO, Mr Kushal Gurung, was invited as a Keynote Speaker for the session “How Can We Ensure that Rural Areas Get Access to Renewable Energy to Improve Livelihoods”, at the 8th International Renewable Energy Conference (KIREC SEOUL 2019), organized jointly by the Korea Ministry of Trade, Industry and Energy (MOTIE) & Seoul Metropolitan Government, together with REN21, from Oct 23-25, 2019. There were around 3000 participants from 108 countries, including Mr Ban ki Moon, former UN secretary general and a renowned Climate Change Activist, who pointed out that achieving SDGs and Paris Agreement are the two biggest challenges that humanity have ever faced. For more information: http://www.kirec2019.kr/
Unmanaged waste has adverse impact on public health and economy. The government should manage it properly.
Waste management has become a major problem in Nepal, whether in Kathmandu Valley or at majestic Mt Everest. Though there are simple and proven method of waste management, such as three Rs (reduce, reuse and recycle), we are somehow still lagging behind. Segregation of waste at source, a basic foundation for waste management, is hardly being implemented anywhere.
Furthermore, most municipalities are not even collecting the wastes that are being generated. A survey conducted by Wind Power Nepal in 2017 and 2018 shows that Dhulikhel municipality collects about nine tons, Gorkha 7.5 tons, Hetauda 25 tons, Damak 14 tons and Bhadrapur 12 tons of waste daily. The collection efficiency of these municipalities was just 55-60 percent of the total waste generated and even these wastes were not managed properly.
Some municipalities practiced open dumping on the city outskirts or nearby riverbanks. At the dumpsite, informal waste pickers scavenge for recyclable and reusable materials and help to reduce about 20 to 25 percent of the waste and then burn the residual to reduce the volume. This practice of unregulated combustion emits harmful toxic gases posing numerous public and environmental health issues. Besides, the leachate generated from the open dumping site contaminates soil and water resources.
Fortunately, most of the municipal waste (more than 50 percent) in Nepal consist of organic waste, which can be converted into biogas and compost fertilizer—both valuable commodities for the country. However, processing huge amount of municipal waste requires sophisticated technology and money. Economic analysis of ongoing large-scale biogas projects in Nepal shows that these projects are only viable with upfront capital subsidy. A proper understanding of the cost against benefits is a must prior to the project implementation. In general, a biogas plant with a capacity to process one ton of organic waste daily would cost around five million rupees to build, and the cost goes down with increase in the scales of production. The project with at least 40 tons per day (TPD) capacity can become commercially viable, due to increased revenue from high gas yield and fertilizer.
However, not all the municipalities generate such huge amount of organic waste daily. In such a situation, a collaborative approach among different adjacent municipalities is essential to synergize the efforts and resources, thus making the biogas plant feasible. The Kankai-Birta-Arjun municipal biogas plant is one example of collaborative approach in managing the organic waste wherein Kankai Municipality in coordination with Birtamod and Arjundhara municipalities is building a 40 TPD biogas plant using 16 TPD of organic waste collectively from these municipalities, along with other substrates.
Municipal solid waste management service is often viewed as the concern of only local authorities. It is a daunting task to efficiently perform all the activities by themselves. Thus, achieving sustainable waste management requires effort from both private and public sectors. The local authority should focus on overall planning and management. Many municipalities have involved private sector in various aspects of solid waste management ranging from waste collection, transportation and disposal to complete package of waste management. While Private Public Partnerships (PPPs) represent a smart action for waste management, it is not likely to succeed if the government fails to provide favorable environment.
Large-scale biogas is a fledgling technology in the context of Nepal. Installation of biogas plant will make use of methane generated from the biodegradable organic waste, thus, reducing the green house gas emissions in the atmosphere and is expected to replace firewood and fossil fuels. It is estimated that a ton of organic fraction of municipal solid waste generates about 56 cubic meters of biogas (25 kg of bio-CNG), which is equivalent to 25 Kg of LPG, 33.6 kg of kerosene and 196 kg of firewood. Moreover, converting one ton of organic municipal waste into bio-CNG will annually substitute Rs 1, 24,614 of Nepal Oil Corporation’s loss in addition to replacement of imported fossil fuel costs. On the other hand, 208 kg/day of compost fertilizer is generated from a ton of municipal solid waste (MSW) along with biogas. Nepal experiences fertilizer supply deficit almost every year. In the year 2016/17, the actual supply of fertilizer was 3, 24,977 metric tons wherein the potential demand was about 7, 00,000 metric tons. The supply of organic fertilizer will largely benefit farmers in a country like Nepal where more than 66 percent of people are directly involved in farming and 26 percent of its land is being used for agriculture. Thus, implementation of a biogas project to treat municipal waste would encourage sustainable industrial practices to combat climate change and increase agricultural productivity.
Unmanaged waste has adverse impact on public health and economy. It is the government’s responsibility to manage it properly. Each municipality should consider waste management as a business opportunity and use sustainable mechanisms such as waste-to-energy to manage municipal solid waste.
Nepal has seen a rapid interest on large scale solar by project developers over the last year. Department of Electricity Development (DOED) has issued solar projects closed to 500 MW over the last year. Yet, we are just at the start of this solar revolution. Hence, there is a huge potential currently in Nepal and the sector at large. However, there exists lack of clarification on the process and technical skill/knowledge gap among the project developers and investors.
With this background, Alternative Energy Promotion Centre (AEPC) and WindPower Nepal co-organized a 3 day technical workshop on ““Developing Utility Scale Grid Connected Solar PV System in Nepal” along with international partners ABB, Longi Solar and Meteodyn to bridge this technical and product knowledge gaps on 7th– 9th May, 2019 at Hotel Himalaya, Lalitpur, Nepal.
The training workshop mainly focused on process of project development, technical components regarding design of on-grid solar, hands on calculation of solar yield, financial modelling and other aspects of solar projects like environmental compliance and licensing measures. Specifically, the training workshop focused on the following components:
The training had more than 40 participants from diverse backgrounds. The diverse field of cohort participated from financial institutions, engineering companies, academics and from various government departments like the NEA, DOED and Ministry of Energy.
Highlights and Major Takeaways from the sessions:
In Nepal, around 35% of the population still do not have access to grid electricity. And due to the tough mountainous terrain, it is technically and economically challenging to lay conventional on-grid electricity system in every corner of the country. Hence, micro-grids could be the only viable option for these remote and isolated communities.
Micro-grids are discrete, localized energy grid systems, having independent energy sources, load demand management, storage unit and distribution, capable of operating autonomously as well as in synchronous conjunction with an area’s centralized electrical grid. A micro-grid design depends on the size, technology, demand, resource availability, social context, and quality and quantity of the service required in an area. Adequately financed micro-grids based on renewable energy resources can overcome many of the challenges faced by the rural communities, and supersede traditional lighting and electrification strategies; driving a community to become self-sufficient.
Due to advancement in technology, micro-grids have become more reliable and are on par with grid quality electricity. Micro-grids provide people with high quality, grid-comparable electricity to operate productive end use (PEU) loads that help local microenterprises generate revenue. Renewable energy based micro-grids also provides a cost-effective substitute to the commercial consumers who rely heavily on diesel generators. It has been accessed that cost of no electricity is about Rs. 40/KWh thus forcing commercial sectors of rural areas to run diesel generators to fulfill their energy demands. The local people of rural parts of the country fully recognize the economic prospects carried by renewable micro-grid projects.
Government of Nepal has been supporting rural micro-grids through its Alternative Energy Promotion Centre (AEPC). Up until recently, they were only promoting community led projects and only focused on micro-hydros. And these microhydros would become defunct once the national grid reached there. But now they are opening up to concept of private sector led projects, i.e. Energy Service Company (ESCO) model; accepting other technologies like solar and wind energy; and moreover, the system specifications are designed to be grid compatible so that the power plant could be connected to the national grid, if needed. As per the latest Renewable Energy Subsidy Program 2073, AEPC now provides 60% subsidy for up to 100kW rural micro-grid projects- either from micro-hydro, solar or wind. They also have special provision for projects between 100 to 1000kW, for which it has partnered with the World Bank and Asian Development Bank. Hence, in terms of policy, the country has officially opened up for private sector led micro-grid projects. However, there are still many challenges to attract the private sector into micro-grid business.
Biggest concern for private sector is the security of its investment, followed by the return on its investment compare to other alternative investment opportunities. Though Nepal ranks second, only behind India among 11 other developing nations, in terms of readiness for energy access investment, according to one World Bank SE4All report, many private sectors would still be reluctant to invest in rural micro-grid projects in Nepal. Even with 60% subsidy, the internal rate of return on equity (Equity IRR) of a rural microgrid is merely around 10%, if we were to invest 20% equity and rest 20% as a debt at 10% interest rate, and keep the electricity tariff at Nepal Electricity Authority (NEA) rate. The return from micro-grid is less than half than that from an on-grid hydro project, whose expected equity IRR would be more than 17% on average. Furthermore, as the client in micro-grid are usually communities living below the poverty line, the perceived risk of payment default is higher, which could make the debtors and developers equally wary. While on-grid project provides legally binding power purchase agreement between the developer and the power off-taker- Nepal Electricity Authority. And since NEA is a government entity, their odds of defaulting is considered relatively less, such that the Banks are providing debts based on project financing, i.e. without extra collaterals or personal guarantee.
Experiences from community led micro-grid show that there are lots of operation and maintenance related issues due to lack of technical human resources in the community, which could eventually lead into shut down of the power plant. Hence, it is better to promote ESCOs, to run the micro-grids, which has been proven successful in India and Africa. However, it would be very challenging to promote ESCOs under current scenario, as the return on investment from a microgrid can be perceived too low compare to the risk involved. Hence, there need to be more incentives to attract private developers into the microgrid business. Providing low interest rate on loan; collateral free debt finance; exemption on taxes and import duties on equipment needed in a microgrid project are some such incentives that could help to level the playing field.
In conclusion, it is about time for Nepal to promote private sector led micro-grids as a long run source of electricity in area those not reached out by the national grids. The government should subsidize renewable projects to a greater extent; at least for the time being to attract developers and financing institutions. NEA should not resist incorporating micro-grids with the major national level grids and give the former equal chance to be in the black. In a nutshell, decentralized electricity supply system, primarily centered towards PEU load, not only creates a better return value for project developers but sequentially also increases the socio-economical potential of rural areas.
There are many reasons why solar PV panels may not work at their rated performance level. Lack of proper solar radiation in cloudy days, soiling (dust and dirt being collected on solar panels), snow on the panels, sun-tracking losses, shading losses are some of the factors that affects makes the panels to under perform. While factors such as cloudy days cannot be controlled, some such as power loss occurring from soiling can be controlled.
Managing solid waste is one of the major challenges of urbanization. Municipalities tolerate the burden of provision of basic services such as water supply, electricity, wastewater treatment, and municipal solid waste management. A case study of three municipalities – Hetauda, Damak and Birtamod – in Terai region show municipal solid waste management scenario, practice and problems.
Hetauda Sub-Metropolitan City was established as a municipality in the year 2026 BS, located in the valley between the Mahabharat and the Chure, which was later upgraded as Sub-Metropolis with 19 administrative wards.
Hetauda Municipality has taken various initiatives for a better functioning of Solid Waste Management (SWM) in the city. The most prominent approach has been the segregation of MSW at source with the Green and Blue Channel color based system; a source segregation system practiced in urban wards 2 & 4 covering around 6000 households. In these two wards, Hetauda Municipality has provided Green Colored Bins for collection of Degradable or Wet/Organic Wastes and Blue Colored Bins for collection of Non-Degradable Dry/Recyclable Wastes but this is not so in rest of the wards. People from rural areas utilize the organic waste for feeding cattle or powering the small household bio-gas digesters and also dispose waste by open burning and open space dumping as the waste collection is not frequent and smooth.
A Public Private Partnership (PPP) agreement has been ongoing between Hetauda Municipality and a private company; Clean and Green City Services Pvt. Ltd. for an effective solid waste management. It conducts door-to-door collections at the source points.
The Municipality has a Resource Recovery Facility at the secondary waste collection point with a compost plant also been established for utilizing the organic waste to produce marketable compost fertilizer. A large amount of these materials continues to be disposed at the controlled dumping site besides Rapti Khola River. About 24-27 metric tons of MSW is collected each day from households, businesses and commercial industries of the municipality. In contrast, the collection is merely 43-48% of the total municipal solid waste generation capacity (55.7 metric ton).
Damak Municipality lies in Jhapa district; established as a municipality in the year 1990 AD is located in the valley between the Ratuwa River in the east and the Maawa River in the west. Damak Municipality consists of 10 wards merged from previous 19 wards.
Similar to Hetauda, Damak Municipality has also done a PPP agreement with Pathway Nepal Pvt. Ltd. Pathway Nepal conducts door-to-door collections at source and also from waste hotspots like vegetable waste from the vegetable markets of the municipality. There is neither any source segregation centre nor any practice of segregation undertaken by Damak Municipality or Pathway Nepal Pvt. Ltd at source points. A government body, Solid Waste Management Technical Support Center (SWMTSC), Pulchwok, Lalitpur has provided technical assistance and machineries to the municipality for installing a compost plant. But it has not been commenced due to lack of skilled manpower. The wastes are dumped on the bank of Ratuwa River, which is a temporary dumping site. This temporary dumping site is not well managed causing health hazards to people living in close vicinity. There are disputes between the municipality and the local people living near the dumping sites time to time about not managing the dumping site properly.
Birtamod Municipality is one of the important commercial hub and business centre in Jhapa district established as a municipality in 2071 BS by merging Anarmani, Charpane and Gramani VDC with 10 wards. Municipality has taken very ordinary solid waste management initiatives. It directly manages the municipal solid waste itself without any sort of PPP model adopted. It has hired a team of local persons for the daily waste collection job. Waste is collected daily in morning and afternoon. Approximately 15 quintal waste is collected per day. According to SWM baseline study of Pathak (2017) average per capita household waste of Birtamod municipality is 151 grams/capita/day. And the household waste composition comprises mostly of 82.17% organic, 11.43% plastic, and other materials in small portions.
The collection is done only at main city and market areas and no door to door household waste collection. Waste segregation is not done, so mixed wastes go to dumping site. There is no dedicated resource recovery centre. Scrape pickers pick out recyclable materials like plastic PET bottles from waste heap deposited in street side in market areas and in dumping site. The waste collection currently is done only in wards 1,3,4,5 and 8. It temporarily dumps wastes on the bank of Mechi River near Mechi Bridge which is causing problems and disputes between the local people and the Birtamod municipality. Birtamod municipality is planning to buy land and establish a dumping site near Deuniya River hopefully solving the current waste dumping problem.
Hetauda Sub-metropolis has applied the 3R’s principle implementing source segregation, be it only in two wards for now and hopefully which it will go on to expand in the future. Birtamod and Damak municipality are struggling with dumping their wastes properly. Waste segregation at source is not implemented and not in practice. Health hazards like disease vectors, flies, contamination to local people living near dumping sites etc. is posing threat as these municipalities are struggling to manage their dumping sites. Comparing between the practices and implementation of municipal solid waste management one might have done better than other but all have the common problem of implementation of waste segregation at source, health and environmental risks. All the three municipalities might face the hazards that the dumping sites will create in near future like disease outbreak, leachate contamination to river and ground water as all the dumping sites of these municipalities are placed beside rivers. Collection is not so efficient and in some case insufficient. People are aware about problems of waste but are not habitual in taking actions for it.
The municipalities can change their disadvantage to advantage, their problems into solution their bane into boon by using the dump waste as resources and raw material for creating something useful like converting waste into energy, recycling which will not only reduce their landfill waste drastically but create more income generating opportunities. The large proportion of reusable and recyclable materials provides a great opportunity for increasing waste reuse and recycling. 3R can be promoted to significantly reduce the amount of waste to be disposed of at final disposal sites, thereby saving costs for final disposal and reducing public health and environmental risks. One of the major ideas that could be followed for better management of the waste is segregation of waste at source level. This would require better public awareness of the benefits of waste segregation and recycling, and technical skills and knowledge among municipal staff. Composting plants can be developed in communities or municipalities depending upon their capacity, size, population and level of interest. For the problem of collection, source segregation and implementation of 3R’s principle let’s hope the municipalities will take some time for it as some of the municipalities are established recently with added burden of more area and people to serve. Nepal’s MSW has a large organic content, constituting 66% of household waste and 56%of waste overall (ADB, 2013); so the large organic waste is a great raw material for establishing biogas plants for various purposes like electricity generation or fuel. Plastic wastes can be used to produce diesel with the advancing technologies of today. Alternative Energy Promotion Centre (AEPC) is playing a meaningful role in field of renewable energy. Also there is some subsidy given for establishing alternative energy projects. The municipalities can benefit from this as well as private developers. The municipalities can invite proposals from interested private developers to undertake the project on their behalf to increase biogas production and maximize profits.It is a win-win situation for municipalities with effective management of waste and energy generation. The solution lies within the problem.
References
Asian Development Bank (2013) Solid Waste Management in Nepal Current Status and Policy Recommendations
Pathak, D.R. (2017) Solid Waste Management Baseline Study of 60 New Municipalities